High School Math That Meets College Requirements

Different colleges and universities have very different expectations for high school preparation in math. An engineering school like MIT will expect more preparation than a predominantly liberal arts college like Smith. However, preparing for college gets confusing because the recommendations for high school preparation in math are often unclear, particularly when youre trying to distinguish between what is required and what is recommended. High School Preparation   If youre applying to highly selective colleges, schools will generally want to see three or more years of math that include algebra and geometry. Keep in mind that this is a minimum, and four years of math makes for a stronger college application. The strongest applicants will have taken calculus. At places like MIT and Caltech, youll be at a significant disadvantage if you havent taken calculus. This is also true when applying to engineering programs at comprehensive universities like Cornell or the University of California at Berkeley. If youre going into a STEM field  (science, technology, engineering, and math) thats going to require math expertise, colleges want to see that you have both the college preparation and the aptitude to succeed in higher-level mathematics. When students enter  an engineering program with weak math skills or poor preparation, they face an uphill battle to make it to graduation. My High School Doesnt Offer Calculus Options for classes in math vary widely from high school to high school. Many smaller, rural schools simply dont have calculus as an option, and the same is true even for large schools in some regions. If you find that youre in a situation where calculus simply isnt an option, dont panic. Colleges receive information on the course offerings at your school, and they will be looking to see that you have taken the most challenging courses available to you. If your school offers AP calculus and you choose a remedial course on the mathematics of money instead, you clearly arent challenging yourself. This will be a strike against you in the admissions process. On the flip side, if a second year of algebra is the highest level math offered at your school and you complete the course successfully, colleges shouldnt penalize you. That said, students interest in STEM fields (as well as fields such as business and architecture) will be strongest when they have taken calculus. Calculus may be an option, even if your high school doesnt offer it. Talk to your guidance counselor about your options, which may include: Taking calculus at a local college. You may even find that some community colleges and state universities offer evening or weekend courses that wont conflict with your high school classes. Your high school is likely to give you credit towards graduation for college calculus, and youll also have college credits that are likely to transfer.Taking AP calculus online. Here again, talk with your guidance counselor about options. You may find courses through your state university system, a private university, or even a for-profit educational company. Be sure to read reviews, as online courses can range from excellent to terrible, and its not worth your time and money to take a course that isnt likely to lead to success on the AP exam. Also, keep in mind that online courses require lots of discipline and self-motivation.  Self-study for the AP calculus exam. If youre a motivated student with a  strong aptitude for math, its possible to self-study for the AP exam. Taking an AP course isn t a requirement for taking an AP exam, and colleges will be impressed if you earn a 4 or 5 on the AP exam after self-study. Do Colleges Like Advanced Math Topics? Success on an AP calculus course is one of the best ways to demonstrate your college readiness in mathematics. There are, however, two AP calculus courses: AB and BC. According to the College Board, the AB course is equivalent to the first year of college calculus, and the BC course is equivalent to the first two semesters. The BC course introduces topics of sequences and series, in addition to the general coverage of integral and differential calculus found on the AB exam. For most colleges, the admissions folks will be happy with the very fact that youve studied calculus. While the BC course is more impressive, you wont be hurting yourself with AB calculus. Note that far more college applicants take AB, rather than BC, calculus. At schools with strong engineering programs, however, you may find that BC calculus is strongly preferred and that you wont earn calculus placement credit for the AB exam. This is because,  at a school like MIT, the content of the BC exam is covered in a single semester. The second semester of calculus is multi-variable calculus, something not covered in the AP curriculum. The AB exam, in other words, covers a half-semester of college calculus  and isnt sufficient for placement credit. Taking AP Calculus AB is still a big plus in the application process, but you wont always earn course credit for a high score on the exam. What Does This All Mean? Very few colleges have a definite requirement regarding calculus or four years of math. A college doesnt want to be in a position where it has to reject an otherwise well-qualified applicant due to a lack of calculus classwork. That said, take the strongly recommended guidelines seriously. For most colleges, your high school record is the single most important component of your application. It should show that youve taken the most challenging courses possible, and your success in upper-level math courses is a great indicator that you can succeed in college. A 4 or 5 on one of the AP calculus exams is about the best evidence you can provide of your math readiness, but most students dont have that score available at the time applications are due. The table below sums up the math recommendations for a range of colleges and universities. College Math Requirement Auburn 3 years required: Algebra I and II, and either geometry, trig, calc, or analysis Carleton Minimum 2 years algebra, one year geometry, 3 or more years math recommended Centre College 4 years recommended Harvard Be well-versed in algebra, functions, and graphing, calculus good but not required Johns Hopkins 4 years recommended MIT Math through calculus recommended NYU 3 years recommended Pomona 4 years expected, calculus highly recommended Smith College 3 years recommended UT Austin 3 years required, 4 years recommended

Dropping Out Of High School - 3487 Words

ABSTRACT According to Egyed, McIntosh, Bull (1998), high school dropouts were discussed in literature as early as 1927. At that time dropout was called â€Å"school- leaving† and was considered to be a psychological problem based on interest and attitudes (Fuller, 1927). Beginning in the 1920s, teenagers were viewed as restless and needing the freedom to explore new interests. If schools did not meet their basic needs, there was a high likelihood that these students will drop out (Egyed, McIntosh, Bull, 1998, p. 153). Today, dropping out of high school early is a serious problem for both students and society. Several reviews and empirical evidence have disclosed and shown that there is no simple cause of early school leaving, but it seems to relate to demographic variables, social factors, academic achievement, and school factors. The purpose of this study is to address the key predictors that causes young people to leave high school early without completing their educa tion in Dallas, Texas. A phenomenological approach using surveys will be conducted to determine young people’s perception and assumption of leaving high school early without completing their education. It is ultimately the goal of this research investigation to examine how the Ministry of Education and the community of Dallas is responding to the economic consequences facing these young people who are dropping out/ or leaving highShow MoreRelatedDropping Out Of High School2003 Words   |  9 PagesDropping out of High school: A Look at Three Causes Every year, over 1.2 million students drop out of high school in the United States alone. That’s a student every 26 seconds – or 7,000 a day (Miller 1). Young people drop out of school all the time for different reasons personal to their circumstances. I experienced the feeling of wanting to drop out of school, but fortunately had a strong enough desire to obtain my diploma. There are many like me who were not so fortunate. To some studentsRead MoreDropping Out Of High School1696 Words   |  7 Pages The issue of dropping out of high school were discussed as early as 1927 in literatures according to (Christle, Jolivette, and Nelson 2007). During that era, dropout was called â€Å"school- leaving† and was considered to be a psychological problem based on interest and attitudes. Young people were considered as restless and needing the freedom to explore new interests. If schools did not meet their needs, there was the likelihood that these teenagers will dr op out (Christle, Jolivette, and NelsonRead MoreDropping Out Of High School Dropouts Essay987 Words   |  4 PagesI’ve heard a lot about high school dropouts. through my years in highschool this topic had always popped up. I wonder is dropping out of high school bad as some make it seem? My opinion is that dropping out high school isn’t as bad as some people make it seem. A lot of smart people drop out of high school, people like Einstein dropped out at age 16 and still accomplished many things in life. I discovered a lot about high school dropouts and the many reasons on why students make this decision.Read MoreCauses Of Students Dropping Out Of High School Across The Country1160 Words   |  5 PagesPaper Final Copy 11/21/14 Student Drop Out There are many numerous causes of students dropping out of high school across the country. However, there are three causes that are most prevalent in students across the globe. One cause is having a lack of parental involvement and participation in a child’s life. The atmosphere in homes and neighborhood play a role in kids dropping out of school. Teacher qualification in teaching is a third reason. High School dropout rates have declined a significantRead MoreThe Results Of Raising The Dropout Age1517 Words   |  7 Pagesstudents who attend school on a regular basis usually succeed in life. On the other hand, many students fail to attend school every day which can lead to problems in schools. However, some students have acceptable reasons for dropping out. As a result, a student’s punctuality can ultimately alter his or her education. On that note, dropping out of high school can affect an individual in many ways throughout the years. Schools are facing challe nges dealing with high dropout rates, high rates of truancyRead More Raising the Dropout Age Essay1421 Words   |  6 PagesChildren are told from a young age that it is mandatory for them to graduate from high school, but it’s not until they are on the verge of dropping out that they hear the importance for staying in school. It is also when they hear how high school students who dropouts learn the incredible price to pay in the future when they give up on an education. Thinking with a teenage state of mind and trying to take the easy way out they go straight for a GED, which is told to be an equivalent earning of a diplomaRead MoreFactors Contributing to the High School Drop Out Rate Essay1569 Words   |  7 Pagesgraduating from high school that year? Obviously, people move and transfer but that wasn’t the main cause of this significant drop. The problem was the amount of students who dropped out previous years before. High school American’s are dropping ou t of school daily and this leads to many concerns. According to an online website about The dropout dilemma, â€Å"every 26 seconds a student drops out of public school† (The Dropout Delimma, 2009). The site goes on to show the main reasons why high schoolers dropRead MoreSchool Drop Outs/Labeling Theory Social Learning Theory1499 Words   |  6 PagesSchool Dropouts Florida AM University Abstract Over the years dropout rates have decreased but still target African Americans and Hispanics mostly in our society today. Nowadays they are labeled to fail based on race, background, pregnancy, and/or peers. Since the 1970s, there has been a growing effort to improve high school graduation rates. In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education sounded the alarm because U.S. educational standards had fallen behind otherRead MoreCreating A Better Communication Within Parents, Students And Teachers1639 Words   |  7 PagesEveryone looks forward to being in high school. Fours years you can be wild, careless, and adventuring into adult hood. The years you have class with the same people, know everyones name within the school, and not sure what your future is going to hold. Over the years there have been a decreasing amount of high school students. But there has been a increase in High school dropouts. Comparing the freshman class to the senior class at any school you w ill notice a dramatic decrease in students. DueRead MoreSocial Support For Adolescents At Risk Of School Failure943 Words   |  4 Pagesfor Adolescents at Risk of School Failure. Social Work, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 309-323. Oxford University Press. Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org.memex.lehman.cuny.edu:2048/stable/23718683 The author of this article emphazises the importance of encouraging students who are at risk of dropping out from school and the significance that makes social support on desirable school outcomes. In it also discussed the distinction between the support and interaction of the school and student and it concluded

Space meets knowledge The impact of workplace design On knowledge sharing Free Essays

string(84) " the workplace can be used to good effect can be gained from Google’s operations\." Abstract An examination of the role the physical workplace plays in creating opportunities and barriers that influence knowledge management has become a matter of substantial debate. Design of good workplaces for knowledge sharing is considered a major challenge for any organisation. This study provides an insight into the impact of the design and use of the physical workplace on knowledge sharing. We will write a custom essay sample on Space meets knowledge The impact of workplace design On knowledge sharing ? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Evidence presented in this study substantiates the position that the physical presence of an employee has the potential to impact performance and knowledge management. This assessment will be of use to researchers seeking to further examine the area of knowledge management. Introduction Knowledge management, described as the intentional management of information has become increasingly important to organisations (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995; Alavi, 1997; Garvin, 1997; Wiig, 1997; Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Ruggles, 1998; Hansen, 1999; Zack, 1999a). In large part this has been fuelled by the exponential growth of the knowledge economy and the increasing number of knowledge workers who have become as essential for many firms competitiveness and survival (Tallman and Chacar 2010). For many emerging organisations face to face contact is essential in the dissemination of knowledge within that infrastructure (Ibid). The process of internal knowledge management is a dynamic element that must be maintained in order to produce results. Literature Review Knowledge is defined as a dynamic human or social process that allows a justification of personal belief as regards the truth (Nonaka 2011). Interaction between people, employees and consumers is one of the primary methods of communicating innovative and inspirational progress. Modern studies in the field of knowledge management have begun to shift focus from the importance of the physical workplace to those engaged in knowledge work (Becker 2004). The recognition of inherent value in the employee base adds incentive to capitalize on the low cost innovative opportunities that knowledge sharing creates (Tallman et al 2010). With critical insight established through the direct contact of the employees, the means of communication becomes a critical concern (Dakir 2012). International companies are recognizing this same value of face to face interaction as the social interaction between management sections, benefits production and development levels world-wide (Noorderhaven and Harzing 2009). In their discussion of social capital, Cohen and Prusak (2001) emphasise the importance of the physical workplace for the exchanging of knowledge, specifically the distribution of ideas amongst individuals in a situation where they could not assume that others knew what they were required to know. Becker (2004) hypothesises that the choices an organisation makes about how space is allocated and designed directly and indirectly shapes the infrastructure of knowledge networks – the dense and richly veined social systems that help people learn faster and engage more deeply in the work of the organisation. This corresponds with the Dakir (2012) argument that technology is no substitute for live interaction among the members of the organization. Davenport et al (2002) undertook a study among 41 firms that were implementing initiatives to advance the performance of high-end knowledge workers who were regarded as critical to the company’s aims. They focused upon determining th e elements that affected the knowledge work performance. Surprisingly, the issue that was most frequently dealt with by these firms involved the physical workplace – â€Å"the other common ones were information technology and management† (Davenport 2005, p. 166). Davenport (2005) emphasises that the recognition of the importance of knowledge work has grown in recent years, but that our understanding of the physical conditions in which knowledge can flourish has failed to keep pace. The inclusion of emerging communication technology has been argued to provide a better opportunity for employee interaction (Rhoads 2010). This same element of improved long distance communication is credited with diminishing the valued impromptu inspiration that many firms rely on during day to day operations (Denstadli, Gripsrud, Hjortahol and Julsrud 2013). According to Davenport et al (2002) workplace design should be seen as a key determinant of knowledge-worker performance, while we largely remain in the dark about how to align ‘space’ to the demands of knowledge work. Davenport (2005) emphasises the point that â€Å"there is a good deal said about the topic, but not much known about it† (p. 165). Most of the decisions concerning the clima te in which work takes place have been created without consideration for performance factors. This fact continues to diminish opportunities for in-house knowledge sharing and effective dissemination of intelligence (Denstadli et al 2013). Becker (2004) points out that the cultivation of knowledge networks underpins the continuing debate about office design, and the relative virtue of open versus closed space. Duffy (2000) confirms these views when he admits that early twenty-first-century architects â€Å"currently know as little about how workplaces shapes business performance as early nineteenth-century physicians knew how diseases were transmitted before the science of epidemiology was established† (p. 371). This makes every emerging decision regarding effective knowledge sharing critical to the development of any organisation. Deprez and Tissen (2009) illustrate the strength of the knowledge sharing process using Google’s approach: â€Å"one company that is fully aware of its ‘spatial’ capabilities†. The spatial arrangements at Google’s offices can serve as a useful example of how design can have a bearing on improving the exchange of knowledge in ways that also add value to the company. The Zurich ‘Google engineering’ office is the company’s newest and largest research and development facility besides Mountain View, California. In this facility, Deprez and Tissen (2009) report: â€Å"Google has created workspaces where people literally ‘slide into space’ (i.e. the restaurant). It’s really true: Google Is different. It’s in the design; it’s in the air and in the spirit of the ‘place’. It’s almost organizing without management. A workplace becomes a ‘workspace’, mobilizing the collectiv e Google minds and link them to their fellow ‘Zooglers’ inside the Zurich office and to access all the outside/external knowledge to be captured by the All Mighty Google organisation† (2009, p. 37). What works for one organisation may not work for another and this appears to be the case in particular when it comes to Google (Deprez et al 2009). Yet, some valuable lessons in how the workplace can be used to good effect can be gained from Google’s operations. You read "Space meets knowledge The impact of workplace design On knowledge sharing ?" in category "Essay examples" For this precise reason, research was carried out at Google Zurich to provide both theoretical and managerial insights into the impact of the design and use of the physical workplace on knowledge sharing (Ibid). Studies comparing the performance of virtual and co-located teams found that virtual teams tend to be more task oriented and exchange less social information than co located ones (Walther Burgoon 1992; Chidambaram 1996). The researchers suggest this would slow the development of relationships and strong relational links have been shown to enhance creativity and motivation. Other studies conclude that face-to-face team meetings are usually more effective and satisfying than virtual ones, but nevertheless virtual teams can be as effective if given sufficient time to develop strong group relationships (Chidambaram 1996). This research implies the importance of facilitating social interaction in the workplace, and between team members (virtual and co-located) when the team is initially forming. Hua (2010) proposes that repeated encounters, even without conversation, help to promote the awareness of co-workers and to foster office relationships. McGrath (1990) recommends that in the abse nce of the ability to have an initial face-to-face meeting other avenues for building strong relationships are advised to ensure the cohesiveness and effectiveness of the team’s interaction. So although interaction alone is not a sufficient condition for successful collaboration, it does indirectly support collaboration. Nova (2005) points out that physical proximity allow the use of non verbal communication including: different paralinguistic and non-verbal signs, precise timing of cues, coordination of turn-taking or the repair of misunderstandings. Psychologists note that deictic references are used in face-to-face meetings on a regular basis, which refers to pointing, looking, touching or gesturing to indicate a nearby object mentioned in conversation (Ibid). Newlands et al (2002) analysed interactions of two groups performing a joint task in either face-to-face or a video conference system. They found that deictic hand gesture occurred five times more frequently in the face-to-face condition the virtual interaction. More recent research has found that extroverts gesticulate for longer and more often in meetings than introverts (Jonnson 2006). Barbour and Koneya (1976) famously claimed that 55 per cent of communication is non-verbal communication, 38 per cent is done by tone of voice, and only 7 per cent is related to the words and content. Clearly non-verbal communication is a key component of interaction and virtual interaction systems need to replicate this basic need, especially in the early stages of team forming or when the team consists of a high proportion of extroverts. The physical co-location of teams also facilitates collaboration (Ibid). A seminal piece of research carried out by Allen (1977) demonstrated that the probability of two people communicating in an organisation is inversely proportional to the distance separating them, and it is close to zero after 30 metres of physical separation. Furthermore, proximity helps maintain task and group awareness, because when co-located it is easier to gather and update information about the task performed by team members (Dakir 2012). A recent survey of workers at highly collaborative companies found that most â€Å"collaborative events† are short (with 34% lasting fewer than 15 minutes) and the majority take place at the desk (Green 2012). It is likely that these impromptu interactions relate to sharing information (perhaps on the PC) or answering queries rather than lengthy intense discussion and development of joint ideas. Interactions at desks may facilitate tacit knowledge sharing by overhearing relevant conversations between team members, but such interactions can also be considered a distraction if not relevant (Denstadli et al 2013). Methodology There are two acknowledged methodological approaches: quantitative and qualitative (Creswell 2005). The quantitative method involves identifying variables in a research question which are then utilized in order to collate numerical data (Ibid). The qualitative research is open to interpretation allowing personal answers to be incorporated into the study (Creswell 2005). The researcher considered both options in order to complete the necessary goals. Types of Data There are two forms of data: primary, or newly generated data, or secondary, previous data generated within existing studies (Creswell 2005). This study required the acquisition of primary data creating the need for relevant instruments. A survey with 5 open-ended questions has been created and subsequently conducted with centred on 548 employees working at Google Zurich. This was done in order to explore the perceptions of Google employees with regard to the environment in which they work with a focus on factors that affect knowledge sharing in the work environment. Methods of Data Collection The qualitative data analysis employed a Content Analysis technique to reveal participant perceptions of their work environment. The survey questions were designed to explore employee perceptions regarding the following dimensions: 1) Activities that allow for increased exchange of knowledge; 2) Advantages of frequent interaction with colleagues; 3) Individuals or groups dependent on the frequent interaction with co-workers orgroup members; 4) Factors that facilitate interaction within the workplace 5) Factors that inhibit interaction with others in the workplace. Survey participants responded to five open-ended questions and rated their answers using a five-point Likert scale where 5 was ‘most important’. Using a Content Analysis approach (Creswell 2005; Leedy and Ormrod 2005; Neuendorf 2002), the interview responses were analysed. Content Analysis is a qualitative data reduction method that generates categories from key words and phrases in the interview text; it is an evidence-based process in which data gathered through an exploratory approach is systematically analysed to produce predictive or inferential intent (Creswell 2005). Content Analysis was used to identify themes or common concepts in participants’ perceptions regarding the culturally and environmentally distinctive factors that affect interaction in the workplace (Neuendorf, 2002). This process permitted the investigator to quantify and analyse data so that inferences could be drawn. The Content Analysis of survey interview text was categorically coded to reflect various levels of analysis, including key components, words, sentences, or themes (Neuendorf 2002). These themes or key components were then examined using relational analysis to determine whether there were any relationships between the responses of the subjects. The analysis was conducted with Nvivo8 ® software which enables sorting, categorising, and frequency counts of invariant constituents (relevant responses). Content Analysis was used to critically evaluate the survey responses of the study participants, providing in-depth information regarding the factors related to workplace interaction. Sample Respondent Characteristics The invited population consisted of 675 individuals and a total of 548 individuals participated in the survey resulting in a response rate of 81 per cent. Of these 548 completed surveys, 35 responses were discarded because the respondents only partially completed the survey. The final sample consisted of 513 respondents. The key characteristics of these respondents are summarized in Table 4-1. Table 4-1 Sample Respondent Characteristics FactorDescriptionFrequency EducationHigh School Bachelor Degree Certificate Degree Master Degree PhD Degree Other:15 118 19 231 121 9 Tenure 2 years 2-5 years 5 years153 331 29 Time Building Use 1 year 1 year 2 years 2 years140 102 271 0 Time Desk Use 3 months 3-6 months 7-12 months 12 months143 159 126 85 Age 20 years 21-30 years 31-40 years 41-50 years 50 years0 216 255 35 7 GenderMale Female428 85 MobiltyZurich Office Other Google Office Home Office Travelling Other88.9% 3.9% 3.9% 2.7% 0.5% PositionEngineering Sales and Marketing GandA Other:428 12 14 59 NationalityGermany Switzerland United States France Poland United Kingdom Romania Hungary Netherlands Sweden Spain Australia Russian Federation 10 respondents73 62 35 33 28 27 24 23 17 16 14 13 12 136 Survey Findings In order to provide an audit trail of participant responses to the thematic categories that emerged from the data analysis, discussion of the findings precedes the tables of data, within a framework consisting of the five survey questions. An overall summary is provided at the conclusion of the discussion of findings. During the analysis of data, common invariant constituents (relevant responses) were categorically coded and associated frequencies were documented. Frequency data included overall frequency of occurrence as well as frequencies based on rating level (5 = most important to 1 = least important). Invariant constituents with a frequency of less than 10 were not included in the tables. Study conclusions were developed through an examination of the high frequency and highly rated invariant constituents in conjunction with the revealed thematic categories. Question 1: Main Activities that Allow Exchange of Knowledge Table 4-2 provides high frequency invariant constituents (relevant responses) by survey participants demonstrating themes within the data for Question 1. Thematically, the analysis revealed the following primary perceptions of participants in terms of main activities that allow knowledge exchange: (a) meetings of all types; (b) whiteboard area discussions; (c) video conferencing; (d) email, and (e) code reviews. These elements demonstrated a high frequency of importance ratings, and a moderate percentage of respondents rated these elements as ‘most important’ (rating 5). Other themes revealed through the analysis included the importance of writing and reading documentation, Instant Messaging (IM) text chat, Internet Relay Chat (IRC), and extracurricular/social activities. All other invariant constituents with a frequency of greater than 10 are shown in Table 4-2. Table 4-2 Data Analysis Results for Question 1: Main Activities Allowing for Exchange of Knowledge Invariant ConstituentOverall number (Frequency)By Rating 5=Most important n=51354321 Informal discussion/face to face mtgs/stand ups35114977603332 Formal planned meetings/conference room mtgs2184061563823 Email207747432216 Lunches/Dinners64910151812 Whiteboard area discussions/brainstorming5822131094 Video Conferencing (VC)5841620144 Code Reviews515162046 Writing/Reading Documentation476813164 IM/Text Chat/IRC4610161073 â€Å"Extracurricular Activities† (e.g., pool, socializing, Friday office drinks, etc.)4522151016 Writing/Reading docs specifically wiki pages/sites34210697 Chat (unspecified in person vs. text)3387873 Techtalks2745675 Training/presentations23133106 Mailing lists21102522 Shared docs/doc collaboration1703554 Read/write design docs specifically1202505 Telephone/phone conversations1203243 Question 2: Main Advantages of Frequent Interaction with Colleagues Table 4-3 provides high frequency invariant constituents (relevant responses) by survey participants demonstrating themes within the data for Question 2. Thematically, the analysis revealed the following elements representing the primary perceptions of participants in terms of the main advantages to frequent interaction with colleagues: (a) knowledge and information exchange and transfer; (b) staying current on projects and processes; (c) social interaction; (d) learning from others; (e) faster problem resolution; (f) efficient collaboration; and (g) continuous and early feedback. The following themes received a high frequency of importance ratings and a large percentage of ‘most important’ and ‘important’ ratings (rating 5 and 4, respectively) included: knowledge sharing, staying in touch and up to date, learning from others, faster resolution/problem solving, better collaboration, and feedback. Although socialising was revealed to be a strong overall theme , it also demonstrated lower importance ratings. Other themes revealed through the analysis are provided in Table 4-3. Table 4-3 Data Analysis Results for Question 2: Main Advantages of Frequent Interaction Invariant ConstituentOverall number (Frequency)By Rating 5=Most important n=51354321 Knowledge sharing/exchange of information/Knowledge transfer149753919124 Staying in touch/up to date/ more info on projects and processes11358281782 Socializing/social interaction7451035186 Learning/learning from others/learning new things/increased knowledge base7217281485 Understand problems/needs – faster resolution and quicker problem solving7025241146 Better/more efficient collaboration67428953 Feedback/continuous feedback/early feedback661729893 New and better ideas/flow of ideas/creativity/ brainstorming6525151474 Teamwork/being part of a team/teambuilding5110121892 Get work done/efficiency/speed462613241 Fun4421115115 Better understanding of what others are doing and how/workloads4415171002 Everyone on same page/shared vision/focus on goals of team32109652 Better personal contact and easy interaction27561123 Avoid misunderstanding/work duplication27810441 Helping others/getting help (when stuck)26391031 Good/happy atmosphere/work environment2412858 Networking2219624 Motivate each other/inspiration2151582 Other/new perspectives/viewpoints18210312 Improving quality of work/performance1615910 Work synchronization1628141 Productivity1231431 Knowing latest news/innovations1203216 Better communication1011521 Question 3: Individuals or Groups that are Dependent on Frequent Interaction Table 4-4 provides high frequency invariant constituents (relevant responses) given by survey participants demonstrating themes within the data for Question 3. Thematically, the analysis revealed the following elements representing the primary perceptions of participants in terms of individuals or groups that are dependent on frequent interaction of the participant: (a) my team/project teammates/peers; and (b) managers. The first theme demonstrated a high frequency of importance ratings with a moderate percentage of ‘most important’ and ‘important’ ratings (rating 5 and 4, respectively). Although the theme of managers was revealed to be a relatively strong overall theme, it also demonstrated lower importance ratings. Other themes revealed through the analysis are shown in Table 4-4. Table 4-4 Data Analysis Results for Question 3: Individual/groups dependent on frequent interaction of participant Invariant ConstituentOverall number (Frequency)By Rating 5=Most important n=51354321 My team/project teammates/peers12887191435 Managers/PMs484241163 Users/customers/clients357121042 All reports/related teams34717442 Engineering teams (various)28188200 Recruiting team/staffing1753630 Geo Teams1576200 Operations teams1423522 All of them1191010 HQ1133122 Other engineers using my project/peer developers of my tool1015310 Question 4: Factors Facilitating Easy Interaction Table 4-5 provides high frequency invariant constituents (relevant responses) by survey participants demonstrating themes within the data for Question 4. Thematically, the analysis revealed the following elements representing the primary perceptions of participants about factors that facilitate easy interaction: (a) common, proximal, and open workspace areas; (b) common functional areas; (c) sufficient and available meeting facilities; (d) excellent communication tools; and (e) video conference facilities. The theme of open and common workspace areas/shared office space demonstrated a high frequency of importance ratings with a very large percentage of ‘most important’ ratings (rating 5). Other revealed themes, particularly the second listed theme, demonstrated relatively high overall frequency, but these themes did not demonstrate the strength of importance that the first theme did. Other themes and invariant constituents revealed through the analysis are shown in Table 4-5. Table 4-5 Data Analysis Results for Question 4: Factors Facilitating Easy Interaction Invariant ConstituentOverall number (Frequency)By Rating 5=Most important n=51354321 Open and Common workspace areas/shared office space/desk locations/sitting together175103342594 Common shared Areas (e.g., Kitchen, play/game rooms, lounges, library, etc.)173406642178 Enough facilities for meetings/availability of meeting and conference areas90192730122 Great communication tools (email, VC, chats, dist. Lists, online docs, wireless, VPN, mobile†¦)80113014187 Video Conference meeting rooms/facilities78192518124 Onsite lunch/dinner/common dining area (free food and eating together)5071511134 Whiteboard areas for informal meetings431018771 Corporate culture/open culture/ open communication culture431811932 Email421113954 Casual and social environment/open atmosphere36195921 People: easy going, friendly, smart, knowledgeable, willing to help35149336 Social Events2836577 Company calendar/planned ops for meeting/ scheduled meetings1937621 Geographic co-location/same time zone1374200 Travel/trips to other offices1212135 Chat (non-specific text or in person)1124302 IM/internet chat1051112 MOMA/social networking/wiki pages/company docs1010342 Question 5: Factors Inhibiting Interaction with Others Table 4-6 provides high frequency invariant constituents (relevant responses) by survey participants demonstrating themes within the data for Question 5. Thematically, the analysis revealed a single strong element and several elements with less relevance as inhibiting factors. The physical geographic differences – specifically the time zone differences – were noted by a majority of participants as the most important element that inhibited interaction with others. Study participants perceived their overscheduled and busy work lives, noise levels in their workspaces, and shared work environments to be contributing inhibitory factors with regard to interaction with others. These elements also demonstrated high frequencies of importance ratings with a moderate percentage of ‘most important’ ratings (rating 5). Other themes revealed through the analysis are shown in Table 4-6. Table 4-6 Data Analysis Results for Question 5: Factors Inhibiting Interaction with Others Invariant ConstituentOverall number (Frequency)By Rating 5=Most important n=51354321 Physical Geographic distance/ timezone differences16411536931 Very busy/Overscheduled people/ overbooked calendars/ too many meetings4517161020 Crowded/noisy environment/ noise in shared space33196440 Defective VCs/ VC suboptimal/ VC equipment not working2597720 No meeting rooms available2286620 Too few VC rooms in some locations / lack of available VC rooms1949501 Open Space: no privacy, interruptions/ disruptions1958321 Information overload/ too much email1562610 Large office building/building size and layout/ too many people, difficult to find people15114000 Team split between multiple sites or large distance between team members in same bldg1545420 Need more whiteboards/lack of informal areas with whiteboards1135210 Language barrier: lack of correct English/not knowing colloquial lang. or nuances1151311 Lack of time/deadlines1152121 Different working hours within same time zone1053200 Discussion Both the literature and the survey have illuminated interesting facets of the work environment and the need for personal communication. The analysis of the 513 participants’ responses to five open-ended questions from the employee perception survey revealed patterns of facilitating and inhibiting factors in their work environment. Nonaka (2011) clearly illustrates this point with the argument that the communal environment promotes a standard of communication not found in the technological alternatives. Further, the shift away from the organization to the person orientation provides a fundamental benefit to every employee (Becker 2004). With a rising recognition of individual value, the organisation is building employee trust. Participants in this study preferred frequent, informal opportunities for the exchange of knowledge. The opportunity for growth was centred on the capacity to exchange concepts in a free and easy manner (Nonaka 2011). The evidence presented in this study demonstrates that these opportunities were more valued by team members with high knowledge exchange needs. This is line with the increased depth of knowledge and ability to meet technical needs through employee communication (Tallman et al 2010). A combination of professional advice can benefit the entire production and development process. In this study, transactions among participants were often brief, and were perceived to require limited space – often just stand-up space – with noise-regulating options not found in open-office environments. Dakir (2012) demonstrates the environment has the potential to add to or detract from employee communication, making this factor a critical consideration. Spontaneous and opportunistic knowledge-sharing transactions were valued, and technology provided a platform for this type of knowledge exchange to occur. This evidence from the survey corresponds with the literature illustrating that increased communication and sharing in the workplace enhances the entire operation, as well as providing new and fresh opportunities and innovations (Tallman et al 2010). The research at Google provides further support for the view of some leading companies who strongly believe that having workers in the same place is crucial to their success (Noorderhaven et al 2009). Yahoo’s CEO Marissa Mayer communicated via a memo to employees that June 2013, any existing work-from-home arrangements will no longer apply. Initial studies theorized that the work at home system would provide a better platform for workers, even on a local level (Dakir 2012). Many points of the memo cited in this Yahoo example, parallel the literature presented in this study. Her memo stated (Moyer 2013): â€Å"To become the absolute best place to work, communication and collaboration will be important, so we need to be working side-by-side.† This is clearly in line with the Coehen and Prusak (2001) assertion that the physical workplace is a critical element of the dynamic business. â€Å"That is why it is critical that we are all present in our offices. Some of the be st decisions and insights come from hallway and cafeteria discussions, meeting new people, and impromptu team meetings.† This element of the her reasoning is nearly identical to the argument presented by Dakir (2012), that a successful company do so, in part, by promoting communication and teamwork in the office, the technical alternatives are not enough. â€Å"Speed and quality are often sacrificed when we work from home. We need to be one Yahoo!, and that starts with physically being together†¦.Being a Yahoo isn’t just about your day-to-day job, it is about the interactions and experiences that are only possible in our offices† (Moyer 2013). This section is directly in line with emerging studies citing the vital nature of the interaction and face to face employee contact (Heerwagen et al. 2004). This study has clearly demonstrated that Mayer is not alone in her thinking; Steve Jobs operated in a similar fashion as well (Davenport et al 2002). Despite being a denizen of the digital world, or maybe because he knew all too well its isolating potential, Jobs was a strong believer in face-to-face meetings. â€Å"There’s a temptation in our networked age to think that ideas can be developed by email and iChat,† he said. â€Å"That’s crazy. Creativity comes from spontaneous meetings, from random discussions. You run into someone, you ask what they’re doing, you say ‘Wow,’ and soon you’re cooking up all sorts of ideas† (Isaacson, 2011, p. 431). This assertion by Jobs closely resembles the argument presented in the Rhoads (2010) study that found a clear correlation between the communication capacity and opportunity for successful innovation and progress. Following this philosophy led Jobs to have the Pixar building designed to pr omote encounters and unplanned collaborations.Mayer’s former colleague at Google agrees (Ibid). Speaking at an event in Sydney February 2013, Google CFO Patrick Pichette said that teleworking is not encouraged at Google. This reflects the consensus that is emerging that time in the office is not only valuable but necessary to sustained competition in the industry (Denstadli et al 2013). Pichette believes that working from home could isolate employees from other staff. Companies like Apple, Yahoo! and Google are holding on to (or have started embracing) the belief that having workers in the same place is crucial to their success (Dakir 2012). This appears to be based on the view that physical proximity can lead to casual exchanges, which in turn can lead to breakthroughs for products. Heerwagen et al (2004) illustrates that it is evident that â€Å"knowledge work is a highly cognitive and social activity†. Non-verbal communication is complex and involves many unconscious mechanisms e.g. gesture, body language, posture, facial expression, eye contact, pheromones, proxemics, chronemics, haptics, and paralanguage (Denstadli et al 2013). So, although virtual interaction can be valuable it is not a replacement for face-to-face interaction, particularly for initial meetings of individuals or teams. Furthermore, the increase in remote working has indicated that face-to-face interaction is important for motivation, team-building, mentoring, a sense of belonging and loyalty, arguably more so than in place-centred workgroups (Deprez and Tissen 2009). Conclusion The role of knowledge management in the workplace has become an increasingly valuable segment of a company’s resources. This study examined the practice of working remotely versus employee interaction in the work place providing many illuminating developments. Despite the early optimism that emerging technology was going to provide the end all to employee work habits have proven less than fully realized. The evidence in this study has continuously illustrated an environment that requires the innovative, face to face interaction in order to maintain a competitive edge in the industry. Further, the very environment that promotes this free exchange of ideals is not adequately substituted by technology. In short, the evidence provided in this study has clearly demonstrated the advantage that the in house employee has over the remote worker. The impromptu encounters between employees are very often the elements needed for progress. What is clear is that in order for a business to capitalize on their full range of available resources virtually requires, face to face personal interaction in order to fully realize the firms full potential. In the end, it will be the combination of leadership, teamwork and innovation that provides business with the best environment, not necessarily how much technology is available. References Dalkir, K. 2005. Knowledge management in theory and practice. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Butterworth Heinemann. Denstadli, J., Gripsrud, M., Hjorthol, R. and Julsrud, T. 2013. Videoconferencing and business air travel: Do new technologies produce new interaction patterns?. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 29 pp. 1–13. Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H. 2011. The wise leader. Harvard Business Review, 89 (5), pp. 58–67. Noorderhaven, N. and Harzing, A. 2009. Knowledge-sharing and social interaction within MNEs.Journal of International Business Studies, 40 (5), pp. 719–741. Rhoads, M. 2010. Face-to-Face and Computer-Mediated Communication: What Does Theory Tell Us and What Have We Learned so Far?. Journal of Planning Literature, 25 (2), pp. 111–122. Tallman, S. and Chacar, A. 2011. Knowledge Accumulation and Dissemination in MNEs: A Practice-Based Framework. Journal of Management Studies, 48 (2), pp. 278–304. How to cite Space meets knowledge The impact of workplace design On knowledge sharing ?, Essay examples

Management and Organization in Global Environment

Question: Discuss about theManagement and Organization in Global Environment. Answer: Introduction: Managers either managing the large corporation or small business enterprise are faced with challenges as well as opportunities in the management of the global environment(Lus, et al., 2013, p. 512). Therefore, it makes it primary and vital for any manager to have a comprehensive and extensive understanding of the global environment. Some of the well-performing companies such as Unilever PLC have been boosted by the robust understanding of the opportunities and challenges in the international market. (Rechkemmer Falkenhayn, 2009, p. 7), noted that when the organizations are entering the international environment, they should adopt a range of approaches depending on the nature of the business and time the company is anticipating to operate. Alternatively,(Lus, et al., 2013, p. 515) advocated that it is also crucial to determining the global entry techniques based whether the organization is a new player or it has been in existence in the international market for a while. For effective and successful entry, argued that the managers need elaborative training to able to conquer the constant and intense obstacles that sometimes hamper the operations of the organization. Bearing in mind that the international market is characterized by variety diverse cultures a lot macro and micro environmental factors, it is critical for the international managers to time to time monitor technological, economic, sociocultural, legal and political environments(Lus, et al., 2013, p. 516). This report seeks to address the issue of management and organization in the both in the local and global environment using the aspects of the organization design as well as organization structure. Organization Design Under the aspect of the organization design, this report explores the relationship between the structure and the strategy. This is because of the conflicting studies whereby some hold that structure follows the strategy whereas others argue that it is the strategy that follows the structures. Some of the scholars such as (Morieux, 2011) argued that the organization strategy comes before the structure. In support of his argument, Morieux advocated that strategy entails the behavior of the people and are the actions of the people that determines the structure of the organization. Again, Morieux argued that strategy translates into systems and process which in turn forms the organizational structure. However, other studies hold different views from that of the Morieux. (Kim Mauborgne, 2009), advocated that the organizational structure is primary because it sets out the various segments of the organization. A strategy without a structure will be unrealizable. Despite, the conflicting views of the relationship between the organizational structure and strategy, it will be crucial to note that both aspects must work together to facilitate the organization achieve its desired goals. However, many studies support the notion that the structure follows the strategy. Kim Mauborgne (2009) Argue that the company organization structure becomes effective when there is a strategy in place. Therefore, the Yves argument seems to be valid even though it is not always the case. Organization Structure Organization structure is critical as it offers the direction of the organization. Given the dynamics, in the field of the business, the organizational structure has been going through evolution. This process has resulted in the creation of holacracy a new way of distributing authority. Holacracy is based on the social technology in the governance and operation of the organization(HolacracyOne, LLC, 2016, p. 3). It involves authentically distributing authority in the flexible and self-organized manner in the rules and processes of the organizational structure as well as in the business itself. When compared to bureaucracy, holacracy is more situational and has contingency aspects due to its flexibility nature. Again, it is cheap and allows the employees to become initiative and creative while at the workplace. Holacracy aspects have proved to be effective in the case of the Zappos Company. Zappos, a visionary company, has replaced its top-down management with the holacracy system. Holacracy includes the traits of collaboration and hierarchy and thus it has proved to be very effective in the case of the Zappos organizational structure. According to (HolacracyOne, LLC, 2016, p. 5) once the Zappos Company adopted the Hol acracy technique the new Chief Executive Officer was hired to implement the change. With the new CEO and holacracy in place, the company restructuring process took place very quickly and effectively. This change was accompanied by the change of the employees roles as well as improving their performance. Holacracy innovative culture is somehow related to the agile organizational culture(Strode, et al., 2009, p. 1). Innovative culture drives employees into a commitment to be more successful than yesterday as well as than their fellow workmates. As the results, the organization productivity, reputation, profitability, and discipline is enhanced. Again, the innovative culture puts emphasis on making a decision based on the purpose, organizational culture as well as the available data(Strode, et al., 2009, p. 3). Therefore, holacracy innovative culture is well as good as agile organizational culture and hence an effective aspect in the company organizational structure. Conclusion Organization design and structure are crucial aspects for the success of any organization. A robust organization design should have both the strategy and the structure of the primary elements. However, the strategy should be given priority to pave the way for the structure. The two aspect must be integrated together if they are to help the company achieve its goals. On another hand, organizational structure is very basic for the success of the organization both locally and globally. Therefore, the management should consider adopting the organizational structure which is flexible to suit to the frequent changes in the business environment. References: HolacracyOne, LLC, 2016. Holacracy: Discover A Better Way of Working, Spring City: HolacracyOne, LLC. Kim, W. C. Mauborgne, R., 2009. Harvard Business Review: How Strategy Shapes Structure. [Online] Available at: https://hbr.org/2009/09/how-strategy-shapes-structure [Accessed 29 August 2016]. Lus, A. B. et al., 2013. Management of Environmental Quality. : An International Journal Emerald Article: Considerations on the worldwide use of bioethanol as a contribution to sustainability, 14(4), pp. 509-519. Morieux, Y., 2011. Organization Design: BCG's Yves Morieux on organization and competitive advantage. [Online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jm7d1dzOKmw [Accessed 29 August 2016]. Rechkemmer , A. Falkenhayn, . L. . v., 2009. The human dimensions of global environmental change: Ecosystem services, resilience, and governance. THE European Physical Journal Conferences, Volume 1, p. 317 . Strode, D. E., Huff, S. L. Tretiakov, A., 2009. The Impact of Organizational Culture on Agile Method Use. Proceedings of the 42nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, pp. 1-9.

great depression Essays (228 words) - Tiger By William Blake

Are We Ever Happy Mankind always wants things but when they accomplish their goal, humans are not as happy as they think. The challenge of all of it is very exciting for a lot of people. Once they get what they want it seems less important then. Humans have a bad habit of taking things for granted. Once mankind reaches his goal, sometimes their not even happy with what they have just done. Once the excitement is gone, humans often loose interest. ?When the stars threw down their spears, And water?d heaven with their tears, Did he smile his work to see? Did he who made the lamb make thee? In this poem, the tiger by William Blake, he illustrates an excellent example of this. When the stars cast their light, and the clouds cryed, was the maker pleased with his creation? Humans are very unique in this way. Humans want something so bad but then when they get it their still not satisfied. Also, people start with good intentions but somehow it blows up in their face. What they once thought was going to be great, in the end turns out to be a nightmare. Humans should slow down and think long and hard before making huge decisions. Mankind often gets caught up in the moment and sometimes it just turns to conflict

Free Essays on Thomas Kinkade - Geniune Or Poser

Thomas Kinkade, artist or businessman? This is the question that the three reviews by Karal Ann Marling, Brooke Cameron, and Mark Pohlad are basically arguing. Kinkade’s paintings and other works usually consist of a little house with the lights on. His work gives a sense of light and warmth at affordable prices. â€Å"His franchise earned more than $2 billion in 2000† (pg. 224). Marling is really supportive of Kinkade’s work. She argues that he is a family man because he puts his wife’s initials in his pictures. She also mentions that Kinkade takes after an artist by the name of Albert Bierstadt, who â€Å"bridges the gap between fine and popular art† (pg. 67). Cameron on the other hand also points out that his work is very soothing for the common person, but he gets more credit than he deserves. She also brings up that his pieces are not authentic, so why buy one? In her last line of the review she compares Kinkade to a â€Å"male Martha Stewart† (pg. 5), someone selling something that the average person can relate to and will buy. Pohlad brings together points that the two previous reviews argue, but his main point is the affordability. How many people do you know that can afford a Van Gogh or a Monet? I Know I can’t, but a Kinkade’s $1,500 painting is a quite a bit more within my grasp.... Free Essays on Thomas Kinkade - Geniune Or Poser Free Essays on Thomas Kinkade - Geniune Or Poser Thomas Kinkade, artist or businessman? This is the question that the three reviews by Karal Ann Marling, Brooke Cameron, and Mark Pohlad are basically arguing. Kinkade’s paintings and other works usually consist of a little house with the lights on. His work gives a sense of light and warmth at affordable prices. â€Å"His franchise earned more than $2 billion in 2000† (pg. 224). Marling is really supportive of Kinkade’s work. She argues that he is a family man because he puts his wife’s initials in his pictures. She also mentions that Kinkade takes after an artist by the name of Albert Bierstadt, who â€Å"bridges the gap between fine and popular art† (pg. 67). Cameron on the other hand also points out that his work is very soothing for the common person, but he gets more credit than he deserves. She also brings up that his pieces are not authentic, so why buy one? In her last line of the review she compares Kinkade to a â€Å"male Martha Stewart† (pg. 5), someone selling something that the average person can relate to and will buy. Pohlad brings together points that the two previous reviews argue, but his main point is the affordability. How many people do you know that can afford a Van Gogh or a Monet? I Know I can’t, but a Kinkade’s $1,500 painting is a quite a bit more within my grasp....

ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDIES OF ORGANIZATIONS Study

ANALYSIS OF STUDIES OF ORGANIZATIONS - Case Study Example The purpose of this paper is to examine the case studies of North Cumbria Primary Care Trust, London Borough of Redbridge, Wigan Metropolitan Borough Council and Chorley Borough Council, in which changes in the organizational culture were implemented. According to Cumbria NHS (2006) the former North Cumbria Primary Care Trusts have been replaced by Cumbria Primary Care Trust (PCT). This is a major organization for health, serving a population of nearly five lakh people. The organization is responsible for providing primary and community health services, and for commissioning a full range of hospital sercvices for local people. As with all NHS Trusts, the Cumbria Primary Care Trust is required to conduct a self-assessment related to its compliance with national Core Standards for Health. The results reflect a significant improvement in compliance levels, as compared to the previous year. The newly initiated project Closer to Home provides a unique opportunity for the people in North Cumbria to get high quality health care support as close to their own homes as possible, by working together with the NHS. For specialist care, faster access to first-class services is provided through hospitals (NHS Cumbria, 2008). The Redbridge Council of the London Borough of Redbridge has a Cabinet consisting of ten cabinet members required to carry out various duties under portfolios such as adult social services, community safety, budget and performance, housing and health, planning and regeneration and others. The five main responsibilities of the Cabinet are in the areas of budget and policy framework, promotion of the economic, social or environmental well-being of the region, leading the search for best value with the help of Scrutiny Committees, towards continuous improvement in the delivery of services, to exercise all the powers and duties of the Council, and to implement the requirements of Social Inclusion and Equal Opportunities in the delivery of services (Redbridge Council, 2008). Wigan Metropolitan Borough Council The Wigan Metropolitan Borough Council has twelve departments, with its Social Services Department employing 2500 staff appointed at more than one hundred locations in the region. The council is a unitary authority. The policy of Wigan Council is decided upon after debates held by elected councillors who sit on the full council, and the executive cabinet, with the assistance of committees and the guidance of policy panels (Wigan Council, 2008).The various issues that the Council covers include health, affordable housing, asylum seekers, police resourcing, school meals, teenage pregnancy, youth substance misuse, and several others. Select committees undertake a series of reviews of work done on the above issues and submit a final report to the Overview and Scrutiny Committee (Wigan Council, 2008). Chorley Borough Council This is a district authority that provides many public services for residents, businesses and visitors. In the local government, Chorley is regarded as a "two-tier" area, that is where district or borough councils work together with Lancashire County Council, to provide services on

Foreign Policies on Climate Change Memorandum Essay

Foreign Policies on Climate Change Memorandum - Essay Example First, to avert the potential dangers stemming from climate change in Africa and United States, the State has created multiple agencies to fight this menace. The president tasks each agency with specific responsibilities that are related to minimizing the effects of global challenges. This is because if unchecked, temperature increase could lead to food shortage and droughts. These responsibilities feature all probable potential consequences of climate change as well as allow for the addition of the unforeseen effects. Disasters arising from climate change effects, for example, storms are usually under the direct control of FEMA. However, delegate certain disasters like the rise in sea levels fall under the Department of Security. Also, other agencies are tasked with the responsibilities constructing canals and water dam plans in arid and semi-arid parts of the continent. This proposal has the advantage that it requires little funding and few initial resources. Furthermore, it provides helpful guides should any crisis arise. What is more is that responsibilities are made clear thus averting any conflicts that might arise due to inter- agency conflicts. The conflicts could potentially lead to wastage of money time, money, and even risk lives. Secondly, Africa has been hosting climate change summit after every two years. In particular, this helps keep the subject of climate change within the public discourse. It also fosters the pressure that results from an actionable strategy for climate change.

Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 26

Ethics - Essay Example This is true because human beings tend to learn from observation during childhood; from situations during adolescence; and from experiences during adulthood and later part of their lives. All these aspects contribute significantly towards building one’s character, which shapes one’s virtues and moralities. It may be argued that virtues of a person cannot be stable throughout his/her life. The way situations, observation and experience lead to acquisition of certain virtues; sometimes, virtues so acquired can change and make the person selfish, greedy, and insecure. This perspective is derived from Hutcheson’s non-rationalist view or ideology that envisages virtue as the ultimate end for people seen to be virtuous; however, this virtue or ultimate end itself is something that virtuous individual seeks for his/her own sake (Gill, 158). In other words, the virtuous deed may be seen as a means to satisfy the virtuous person’s desire to pursue his/her own ultimate end such as self satisfaction, others goodwill, appreciation etc. Such human nature is also a result of one’s experiences with life, the need for attention, love, affection etc. It is very difficult to confirm that virtuous people will not have any vices; however, the intentions of virtuous people emerge during specific situations. Virtuous people think and act in a manner that ultimately results in good. Virtues can be inculcated in people’s character during early childhood and adolescence. This can be achieved by building character that assimilates goodness, kindness, honesty, and integrity. A few practices to build virtues and character include rewarding and appreciating children for good work, good behavior, honesty and truth, and leading by example. These teachings should ideally begin at home, by parents, siblings, other family members and friends. Similar virtues taught at school will reinforce their character and show a direction towards right living. As children grow,

Geography Essays Housing and Health

Geography Essays Housing and Health Explore the relationships between housingand health Introduction Historically, there has been recognised a directrelationship between substandard accommodation and poor health. The IndustrialRevolution in Britain resulted in low standard working-class housing beingbuilt quickly to meet this increase in demand for workers. Over-crowdeddwellings, inadequate sanitation and a proclivity to dispose of all forms ofwaste in cesspools, rivers and the street resulted in severe epidemics of manyillnesses, predominantly those which are waterborne. In the preface of OliverTwist (Dickens, 1839 [1994]), the author summarises the problem effectivelyby stating: I am convinced that nothing effectualcan be done for the elevation of the poor in England until their dwellingplaces are made decent and wholesome. This reform must proceed all other socialreforms, without it those classes of the people which increase the fastest,must become so desperate and be made so miserable, as to bear within themselvesthe certain seeds of ruin to the whole community (Dickens, 1839). Many of the most significant improvements in health haveresulted from progression in public health reform, most notably clean water,sanitation, and reduced exposure to extreme cold associated with improvedaccommodation. However, the second half of the twentieth century has seen adecline in political interest in the issue of poor housing, despite overwhelmingevidence of the health consequences of poor housing and increasing economicdisparity among different social groups (Potvin, et. al., 2002). Whilethere has been a dramatic improvement in general health in industrial countriesover the last century, some sections of society still live in poverty-strickenconditions, with indications that the divergence between rich and poor is increasing(Stanwell-Smith, 2003). Economically deprived communities frequently reside ininferior housing and unsanitary environments, and these conditions are directlyassociated with the common health problems reported in such populations.There currently exists a substantial body ofresearch into the many relationships between housing and health status (Dunn,2000). The majority of this research has focused on the connections betweensubstandard and crowded housing conditions and incidence of injury, disease,and myriad physical ailments. Health and Housing Epidemiological studies have determined that certaincontaminants in the residential environment, such as mould, dampness, and pestantigens, can cause or exacerbate a range of respiratory problems (Bornehag, et.al., 2005), particularly among children and the elderly. Structuraldeficiencies, overcrowding, poor ventilation, inappropriate ambienttemperatures and low-quality construction and maintenance have been directlylinked to excessive incidences of infectious diseases, asthma, respiratoryinfections, injuries and an overall shortening of lifespan. Exposure toenvironmental hazards, such as carbon monoxide, pesticides, inadequatelymaintained utilities, and tobacco smoke, tends to be greater within sociallyand economically deprived areas, and accounts for a number of serious healthissues (Klitzman, et. al., 2005). The UK and Ireland have both a high rate of povertyand the worst birth weight in deprived areas compared to any other WesternEuropean country (Sandwell-Smith, 2003). The English House Condition Survey showedthat 1,522,000 UK dwellings did not meet the required suitability standards(EHCS, 1996). For many already deprived communities, the only housing availableis substandard. The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends that, duringcold weather, ambient room temperature should remain constant at 18-20C (WHO,2005), however, it is estimated that 40% of the UK population resides intemperatures below these guidelines. Similarly, the UK has 19% of cold, damphousing compared to the 9% recorded in Germany (EHCS, 1996). Despite somemeasure adopted by local governments, housing policy remains insufficient inmany areas. For example, insulation of properties is recognised as a costeffective intervention that could increase ambient room temperatures while decreasingfuel costs for poverty-stricke n communities, however, the Warm Front scheme,which provides funding for insulation, is not available to pregnant women andyoung children. Despite repeated evidence of the effects of poor housing, and associatedlack of heating, on public health interventions remain insufficient. The population of Europe had expanded byapproximately 2.5% between 1990 and 1998 (WHO), with growth more prevalentwithin the south. Eastern Europe is considered poorer, with increasing rates ofunemployment (WHO, 2002). Comparatively, eastern Europe had proportionatelyhigher incidences of injuriea, nutritional deficiencies, and cardiovascular andinfectious diseases. Similarly, the EU nations have a lower proportion of largehouseholds and a high proportion of single person households; the resultinghousing densities within the eastern countries can account for the higher rateof substandard health levels (WHO, 2002). Affordable accommodation for poverty-strickenfamilies is generally restricted to housing with inferior physical properties(Dunn, 2000), often in surroundings with socio-environmental problemsdetrimental to physical and psychological well-being. This housing tends to beconcentrated in specific and discrete locations, resulting in a form ofsegregation for low-income communities, often with poor access to employment,leading to socially deprived neighbourhoods (Potvin, et. al., 2002). Neighbourhoodsthat are unsafe, with limited access to essential goods and services and fewopportunities for social integration, also pose health risks (Klitzman, et.al, 2005), particularly for the poor, the elderly, and other vulnerablegroups. Although technically affordable, accommodation for poorer families canbe disproportionately expensive, and the payment of large rental or mortgagecosts from already meagre finances can result in less disposable income forfuel, food and other basic necessities (EHCS, 1 996). Obesity is a familiarhealth issue associated with poverty; a consequence of low incomes andinexpensive inferior, high fat, high salt diets. Consequentially, it has beendetermined that people with serious health issues are far more likely to occupythe least health-promoting segments of the housing market, which may, in turn,exacerbate their health problems. A broad cross-section of the community is nolonger provided for with regards to the social housing sector, and has becomecharacterised by deprivation and social exclusion (Curtis, 2004). Theowner-occupier sector has expanded, and now includes more people on low incomesthan ever before (EHCS, 1996). The resulting increase in stress as a result ofmortgage debt, arrears and repossession is a major public health issue, and onewhich is rarely addressed. Low-income and poverty-stricken householdstend to move residences more frequently than middle and upper income families.Numerous studies show negative associations between residential mobility and behaviouraland cognitive problems, particularly in developing children (Dunn, 2000). Inturn, inadequate housing may influence individuals health and mentalwell-being by increasing their level of stress as they are affected by securityand long-term stability (Curtis, 2004). Children Low quality housing distinctly affectsthe most vulnerable sections of society: children, the elderly, and thementally and physically impaired. During physical and psychologicaldevelopment, children are more at risk; poor housing and living environmentscan lead to permanent health issues for the child. Crowded living conditions canresult in easier transmission of infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis(Curtis, 2004), and higher incidences of respiratory illness, such asbronchitis and asthma, particularly when residence is shared with smokers. Excessivenoise can result in sleep deprivation, which in turn can affect growth andpsychological well-being of children, and similarly, can have various negativepsychological effects on adults and children alike, including irritability,aggression, depression and inability to concentrate, which is reported tocontribute to family tensions and potentially violence. The health and well-being of children areclosely related to housing quality, suitability and affordability. Housing is akey component of both the physical and social environments in which childrenlive, and it plays both a direct and indirect role in the achievement ofpositive development. Studies indicate that stable, safe and secure housing isvital to childrens healthy development (Board of Science and Education, 2003).Faulty structure and inadequate heating, for example, can cause accidentalinjuries (English House Condition Survey (EHCS), 1996); fire is one of theleading causes of accidental death among children in developed countries. Factorsaffecting the health of children include the cost, quality, tenure andstability of the housing, along with the neighbourhood environment in which thechild resides. The elderly Longevity of society in the developedworld has increased over the past century. However, studies have establishedthat lifespan is positively influenced by living in appropriate, affordable andsafe housing of good quality. Housing is linked to many of the twelvedeterminants of an elderly persons health as identified by internationalhealth committees, including physical environment, social environment, lifestyleand health care, income and social status. Poor housing contributes towards greater mortalityrates among the elderly  in winter, and greater incidences of avoidableaccidents within the home and the local neighbourhood. High susceptibility toillnesses, particularly respiratory problems, associated with old age may begreatly exacerbated by inferior housing, and can result in a much higherhospital admission rate and mortality rate than seen in the same age groupliving in better quality accommodation. Disabilities Difficulties in accessing and maintaininghousing can be acute for people with physical disabilities. Internationally,there are definite obstacles with regards to affordable housing deficiencies,and physically disabled individuals confront specific barriers in securing andretaining safe and suitable accommodation. By the 1970s, advances in medicineand technology began to prolong the lives of physically disabled adults, however,housing for these individuals was primarily limited to nursing homes; a problemwhich still exists. As a result of this shortage of appropriate housing, manyof these people remain in long-term care facilities rather than living independently,regardless of their specific disability. Homelessness The relationship between homelessness andmental and physical health are irrefutable. Regardless of geography, homelessnessis associated with higher incidences of accidental and non-accidental trauma,addictions, sexual assault, and a plethora of physical health conditions,including tuberculosis, skin infections and conditions, and poor bloodcirculation (Curtis, 2004). Rates of mental illness among the adult homelesspopulation within the developed world are estimated at between 10 and 50 percent. In a relatively recent study conducted among the homeless male populationof Toronto, Canada, mortality rates were significantly higher compared to otherToronto social groups. Mortality rates were established at eight times higheramong men aged 18 to 24 years, four times higher among men aged 25 to 44 years,and twice as high among men aged 45 to 64 years (Hwang, 1999). Countless studies have previously determined aspecific connection between homelessness and severely diminished health levelsamong any given population (Hwang, 1999). Access to appropriate, affordablehousing offers benefits beyond the basic necessity of shelter, includingimproved health and well-being, and reduced levels of mental health disorders. Conclusion Everyone has the right to a standard of livingadequate for the health and well being of himself and of his family, includingfood, clothing, housing and medical care. (General Assembly of the United Nations, 1948) In the European Region, addressing inequities inhealth has been fundamental to the work of WHO and features prominently in thetargets for health for all (WHO, 2002). Despite these efforts, however, thereis critical recognition that poverty itself is a distinct and serious problem.Poverty-stricken communities, regardless of geographic location, suffer frominadequate housing, a deficiency in remunerative employment and theinsufficient means to guarantee a nutritious diet. Consequentially, poor healthis predominant within low-income sections of society, and the location ofaffordable housing frequently results in marginalisation, social exclusion(Curtis, 2004) and the associative mental health issues. Central and eastern European populations with transitionaland often instable economies are particularly at risk as a result of socialpoverty and inferior public health, predominantly as a result of the inabilityto provide payment to new health care systems. Many subsections of society arehigh-risk with regards to poor housing and health, and numerous groups,including children, the elderly, people with mental illness, and displacedindigenous communities, such as Aboriginal peoples, rely on suitable housing toprovide access to other forms of support and interventions with broader,positive individual and social effects (Curtis, 2004). There is conclusive evidence that habitation in substandardhousing environments and experience of poor socio-economic circumstances duringchildhood negatively influences health status in adulthood. Vulnerable groups,including the elderly, the very young and those suffering from long-term illhealth, are at specific risk, particularly as they often have diminished immunesystems and the greatest exposure to many specific hazards due to the lengthyperiods that they spend indoors (Klitzman, et. al., 2005). Insufficientamenities, shared facilities and overcrowding are very much a concern withinfectious disease, while damp and mould can cause various debilitatingrespiratory problems (Bornehag, et. al., 2005). However, the debatearound housing and health tends to be concerned with discussion of the direct coursefrom poor housing to health (Dunn, 2000). There is much less consideration ofthe indirect effects of poor housing upon health, such as social exclusion(Curtis, 2004) and depression, a nd psycho-social aetiologies of disease arefrequently overlooked. However, in recent years socio-economic determinants ofhealth have returned to policy debates and housing circumstances are, onceagain, identified as a critical influence upon public health (Board of Scienceand Education, 2003). Epidemiological studies have recently shifted focusedtowards a broader-ranging perspective with regard to poverty, health andquality of life, which presents the potential of enhanced understanding of thedeterminants of health status. As with many health determinants, the quality ofaccommodation is directly related to income. Minimising the adverse effects ofpoor housing remains a major challenge. Health disparities are not reducing inthe UK, and the worst health is experienced by the most socially andeconomically deprived (Stanwell-Smith, 2003). As in the nineteenth century,there is a profound need for concerted public health reform. Central to thismust be improved living standards and prevention of ill health. Bibliography Board of Science and Education (2003) Housing health: building for the future.British Medical Association. Bornehag, C. G., Sundell, J., Hagerhed-Engman, L.,Sigsggard, T., Janson, S., and Aberg, N. (2005) Dampness at home and itsassociation with airway, nose, and skin symptoms among 10,851 preschoolchildren in Sweden: a cross-sectional study. Indoor Air. 10: 48-55. Curtis, S. (2004) Health andInequality: London, Sage. Dickens,C. (1839) [1994] Oliver Twist. London, Penguin. Dunn,J. R. (2000) Housing and health inequalities: review and prospects forresearch. Housing Studies 15: 341-66 EnglishHouse Condition Survey (1996). Office of the Deputy Prime Minister. Availableathttp://www.odpm.gov.uk/stellent/groups/odpm_housing/documents/page/odpm_house_603825.hcsp GeneralAssembly of the United Nations (1948) Universal Declaration of Human Rights.United Nations. Hwang, S. W. (1999) Mortality among homeless men inToronto. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 14(S2): 42. Klitzman, S., Caravanos, J., Deitcher, D., Rothenberg,L., Belanoff, C., Kramer, R., and Cohen, L. (2005) Prevalence and predictors ofresidential health hazards: a pilot study. Journal of Occupational andEnviron Hygiene. 2(6): 293-301 Potvin L, Lessard R, and Fournier P. (2002) Socialinequalities in health. A partnership of research and education. CanadianJournal of Public Health. 93(2): 134-7 Stanwell-Smith, R. (2003) Poverty and Health.   Healthand Hygiene. WorldHealth Organisation (2002) The European Health Report 2002. WHO. Available at: http://www.who.dk/eprise/main/who/progs/ehr/home/ WorldHealth Organisation (2005) Socioeconomic determinants of health. WHOEuropean Office for Investment for Health and Development.

Affirmitive Action In The College Admissions Process Essay -- essays r

Every year millions of high school seniors apply to colleges and universities across the country. Some get in, some don’t. These schools have strict policies on the criteria for the acceptance of such students. The criteria involve many aspects of a student’s prior academic career, such as their academic standing, extra curricular activities and work ethic. These are criteria that put everyone on the same level because everyone has the ability to work harder or join more athletics. However, no one can change the color of their skin, and colleges base their admissions on these variables as well. So racism, in a sense, affects even the most basic of human ideals, education. If all men are truly created equal, as it is written, then race should not matter. Why aren’t college admissions based solely on merit? No person should be given an advantage based solely on the color of his or her skin.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Racism is the belief that one particular race is superior to another. Throughout history people have been persecuted or singled out because of the color of their skin, even in our own country. How can this be in a country that claims that all men are created equal? Racism is so much a part of American culture now that we have claims of reverse racism and programs implemented, such as affirmative action, not just to protect the rights of a different person but to further them along in life and to make things easier for them. When this country was founded, it was believed that people that were born with a different color skin were inferior to those with white skin. They were in fact enslaved before America was actually founded, and this treatment continued until the country was nearly a hundred years old. Since then African Americans and other races have been attempting to reach equality in this country. One such method has been through education. In America, intell igence for the most part is respected, just as much as hard work. College in this country is the epitome of both.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the university setting young adults are pushed to their limits. Their intelligence is tested on a daily basis in many different ways. Some classes involve heavy writing and still others involve written exams as their form of grading. Work ethic is also pushed. Homework is assigned and the true student does these assignments to maintain th... ... Lomotey. The Racial Crisis in American Higher Education. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991. Browne-Miller, Angela. Shameful Admissions. San Franscisco: Jossey Bass Inc., 1996. Kleiner, Carolyn. â€Å"Wanted: a whole rainbow of talent Colleges are vying for minority students.† U.S. News and World Report 18 Volume 129 Sep. 2000. Marcus, Amy Dockser. â€Å"Class struggle.† Money Volume 29 Oct. 2000. Meacham, Jon. â€Å"The new face of race† Newsweek Volume 136 Sep/ 18, 2000. Reisberg, Leo. â€Å"A professor’s controversial analysis of why black students are losing the race† The Chronicle of Higher Education Volume 46 11 Aug. 2000. Selingo, Jeffrey. Florida’s universities see rise in minority enrollment after end of racial preferences.† The Chronicle of Higher Education Volume 47 8 Sep. 2000. Pages 1-3. Walsh, Laurie A. et al. â€Å"Affirmative action in American higher education and the goal of diversity in physical therapy programs† Journal of Physical Therapy Volume 14 Spring 2000.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Mass immigration in the period 1945-c.70 a Essay

Was Britain’s approach to mass immigration in the period 1945-c.70 a success or a failure? The question of whether Britain’s approach to mass immigration in the period 1945 – c.1970 was a success or a failure is not as straightforward as it first may seem. Unpacking the question a little will help. Firstly, it is important to consider what is meant by Britain? Should it be taken to mean the government or the people, and which people? Britain’s approach’ might be thought more likely to refer to government but clearly many British people having nothing to do with government also encountered mass migration and migrants in one way or another and therefore can be said to have had an approach to it. Also, the idea of a singular ‘approach’ over some 25 years is misleading. A variety of governments were incumbent over this period and therefore a variety of approaches to mass immigration might be expected. British society also experienced significant changes from the trauma of World War 2, the immediate post-war period and decolonisation to the 1970s and thus approaches and reactions amongst the population at large are bound to be many and varied as well. Then, finally, there is the question of success and failure. In objective history how are success and failure to be judged? There is no very satisfactory answer to such subjective notions. It might best be determined on a policy basis, either governmental or non-governmental, but that is still a rather narrow view. This essay will examine selectively both governmental and non-governmental approaches to mass immigration into Britain from 1945-1971 in a broadly chronological framework, beginning with the immediate post-war period and Polish settlement, before turning to what has been termed colonial or New Commonwealth immigration. Government policy will be analysed as will some of the social effects of and response these to migrations. Finally, the governmental approach to mass immigration from Ireland will be examined and contrasted with the former examples before a conclusion and answer is attempted. It should be noted at the outset that it is not possible in the space provide to include discussion of every immigrant population group, nor to examine satisfactorily the responses of the population at large but the groups discussed herein have been chosen on the basis of numbers. That the reconstruction of the Britain after World War 2 would require labour was already a concern of the government in 1944, who appointed a Royal Commission to assess the matter of population. This Commission reported in 1949 that immigration could be welcomed without reserve ‘if the migrants were of good human stock and were not prevented by their religion or race from intermarrying with the host population and becoming merged into it’. An indication of who constituted acceptable migrants had already been given by the government. At the end of World War 2 there were perhaps 500,000 Poles in Britain. While initially the government favoured voluntary repatriation for the Poles, the advent and recognition of a USSR dominated communist Poland was off-putting or impossible to many. Recognising the potential offered by the Poles, the Polish Resettlement Corps (PRC) was formed in 1946 to help in their transition to civilian life in Britain. This was followed in 1947 by the Polish Resettlement Act. The dependents of those who enrolled in the PRC were also admitted to Britain and by 1948 there were approximately 114,000 enrolled in the PRC and 33,000 dependents. Layton-Henry has concluded that, while sympathy for the Poles existed because of the war and the Soviet annexation of their country, ‘the main reason for the successful integration of the Polish ex-servicemen and their families was the acute shortage of labour at the end of the war’ although there was some opposition from people and trade unions. Post-war Britain was still imperial and colonial (though undergoing an ongoing process of decolonisation), if no longer a power, and as British subjects ‘colonial immigrants had the right of access to Britain and full rights of citizenship, including voting rights, the right to work in the civil service and the right to serve in the armed forces’. Notable in discussions about colonial immigration are the West Indies and the Indian subcontinent and it is immigration from these areas that shall be considered below. In both the West Indies and the Subcontinent there was an awareness of the labour market in Britain – during the war colonial labour had been widely used, with some settlement resulting. In India, Britain had gained a reputation as a land of milk and honey and mutual knowledge was undoubtedly increased by the war. The increasing migration of West Indians to Britain began in 1948, the Empire Windrush leaving Kingston on the 8th of June with 492 passengers bound for a new life with their right, and that of other citizens of colonies or Commonwealth countries, to free entry guaranteed by the British Nationality Act 1948. The demand for labour in Britain and the poverty of some the West Indies were the main factors leading to the migration, but also important was the especially Jamaican tradition of labour migration. Many had traditionally gone to the nearby and rich US, but this was severely restricted in 1952, directing migrants to the UK. Although much West Indian migration to Britain was done in the hope of better prospects, direct recruitment also took place, for example between the London Transport Executive and the Barbadian Immigrants’ Liaison Service and the NHS. Similarly, mass migration of Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims from India and Pakistan was to increase in the 1950s and 1960s. Many factors governed this, such as the economic opportunities presented by Britain, pressure for land and unemployment following limited industrialisation. In both cases, travel agents, family reunions and chain migration helped to drive numbers, with the arrival of dependents often signalling a shift from temporary to permanent migration. West Indies India Pakistan Others Total 1953 2,000 2,000 1954 11,000 11,000 1955 27,500 5,800 1,850 7,500 42,650 1956 29,800 5,600 2,050 9,350 46,800 1957 23,000 6,600 5,200 7,600 42,400 1958 15,000 6,200 4,700 3,950 29,850 1959 16,400 2,950 850 1,400 21,600 1960 49,650 5,900 2,500 -350 57,700 1961 66,300 23,750 25,100 21,250 136,400 1962* 31,800 19,050 25,080 18,970 94,900 Table 1. Estimated net immigration from the New Commonwealth (* first six months) It has been said that after the war, the British Labour government maintained an ‘open door’ policy to immigration, deliberately settling some groups and encouraging others, although the racism of the Royal Commission Report which followed naturally from the racism strong among the government, armed forces and civil service before and during the war remained present. Of particular concern were the immigrants’ visibility and ability to assimilate into British society, obviously favouring white Christians. In early 1950 an interdepartmental working committee recommended discouraging colonial immigration at source, tightening up entry requirements and encouraging voluntary repatriation. The immigration of coloured people was now being seen as a problem in several areas of British life although because of the small numbers involved, the Labour government chose not to act and curtail the traditional rights of citizens. The new Conservative government of 1951 were also concerned with avoiding the creation of, in Churchill’s words, ‘a magpie society’. Both Labour and Conservative governments from 1948-62 were involved in the ‘complex political and ideological racialisation of immigration policy’ and had by 1952 ‘instituted some covert, and sometimes illegal, administrative measures to discourage black immigration’. Debate continued throughout the 1950s about non-white immigration and social problems that were, in the minds of some, intimately connected with it. Where blacks had settled in Britain before the war, racial prejudice was already a factor but during the war, when co-operation and unity were vital, it may have lessened for a time. For non-white immigrants the post-war era revealed continuing hostility and vilification from various parts of society, including in Stepney a priest who considered that blacks posed a social and moral problem. Incidents of violence occurred in the late 1940s between whites, sometimes Irish immigrants, and non-whites in Birmingham, Liverpool and London. These continued sporadically, leading to the much publicised Notting Hill and Nottingham riots in 1958 and the again in 1968. There were problems on both sides including discrimination against non-whites in employment and housing while some whites also worried about these issues and it seems that certain employers and landlords, seeking to maximise their profits took advantage of the situation. Despite such extreme incidents we must contrast also the less high profile friendly and welcoming approach of some people. It would indeed be inappropriate and inaccurate to generalise about the approach to mass immigration by the public and individual local circumstances must always be considered. However, it has been said that post-war British society was still very traditional, and despite the empire, very insular for the majority of British people. This, combined with the pride of empire and the recent defeat of Germany, exacerbated by the natural British superiority taught in schools, could easily lead to a negative attitude to immigrants. In 1962 the Commonwealth Immigration Act was passed by a Conservative government, legally restricting for the first time immigration from the Commonwealth. It was attacked by some sections of Labour and the media press as a response to ‘crude racist pressures’. Other Labour members, however, supported and had campaigned for stricter immigration controls, sometimes even stricter than that of 1962 and eventually Labour u-turned on the issue of repealing the Act. In fact, the looming prospect of strict regulation of immigration from the New Commonwealth speeded up immigration, in particular from the West Indies, destroying the rough balance that had existed between labour demand and supply. The overt politicisation of race and immigration is visible in the Smethwick campaign of 1964. Peter Griffiths fought the Conservative campaign against Labour’s Patrick Gordon Walker and was returned against the national trend. His campaign was based, as he saw it, ‘on defending the interests of the local white majority over the influx of immigrants’ and he notoriously refused to condemn the popular slogan ‘If you want a nigger for a neighbour vote Labour’ defending it as an expression of the popular feeling about immigration. Somewhat ironically, Labour introduced another Commonwealth Act in 1968 in order to restrict the entry of East African Asians who held British passports. The governmental approach to post-war mass immigration from the colonies and the Commonwealth should ultimately be viewed in the light of Irish immigration, for to 1971 the Irish were the largest immigrant minority in Britain (see Table 2). In the 1861 census 3% of the population of England and Wales were Irish and 7% in Scotland with their numbers increased to 957,830, just under 2% of the total population of Great Britain, in the 1971 census. In the late 1920s and 1930s some restrictions on immigration and repatriation were proposed, partly in anxiety at the potential effects of US immigration restrictions increasing the flow of Irish into the UK, but were never realised except during the war. The worries expressed by the reconvened working party in 1955 were restricted to controlling the immigration of coloured colonial and Commonwealth citizens, who were British subjects with legal rights to settle, and not with Irish immigration, concluding that ‘the Irish are not – whether they like it or not – a different race from the ordinary inhabitants of Great Britain’. That an estimated 60,000 Irish per year were migrating to Great Britain compared with far fewer colonial or Commonwealth citizens was evidently not the point, nor was the fact that Irish immigration also led to social tensions as the working party had itself concluded. These were later emphasised by the Commonwealth Acts, about which ‘there was no pretence of adopting non-racist immigration controls by including Irish or other aliens in the legislation’. Table 2. Origins and numbers of some overseas born population of Great Britain in 1971 (note that immigrants may have also emigrated, therefore this table does not show total numbers of immigrants per year of entry) In such a climate, the rise of the Conservative’s Enoch Powell as a spokesman for anti-immigrant resentment seems inevitable and the public response to his ‘rivers of blood’ prediction saw his popularity in polls rise from 67 to 82% in his favour, even making him a contender for the Conservative leadership. Powell used rhetoric and anecdote to create an image of Britain in its death throes through massive immigration, racial civil war and strife in which true white Britons were strangers in their own country, ousted from school, home and hospital by immigrant communities who plotted against them using the invidious Race Relations Act of 1968. The whole premise of the problem of immigrant numbers is in fact a non-starter since in the post-war era emigration from Britain has in any case generally been at a higher rate than immigration. Fortunately, racism at the highest levels was less acceptable than in former days and Powell’s speech was found offensive by many of his parliamentary colleagues although 327 out of 412 Conservative constituency groups wanted all immigration stopped indefinitely and 55 wanted strict limits imposed. A Conservative victory owing in some measure to Powell’s dissonant if not entirely unpopular personal campaign and a promise that there would be no further large-scale permanent migration led to the Immigration Act of 1971, replacing employment vouchers with annually renewable work permits that no longer carried the right of permanent residence or the right of entry for dependants. Because of the special relationship between Britain and Ireland, none of this applied to Irish immigrants, suggesting that colour prejudice was at its heart. In conclusion, despite initial so-called ‘open door’ policy to immigration, guaranteed by colonial or Commonwealth citizen rights guaranteed in 1948, the approach of successive British governments from 1945 to 1971 was to attempt to regulate mass immigration on the basis of skin colour. Indeed it seems that in the late 1960s even Labour accommodated itself to a ‘White Britain Policy’ and the difference in approach to Irish and West Indian and Indian immigrants clearly bears this out. Even today it is apparently acceptable to make a special case for the Irish who, according to Migration Watch UK ‘hardly come into the same category since they were part of Great Britain for centuries’ despite the fact that this ignores Irish ethnicity and identity while favouring skin colour, language and historical political and economic domination as reasons for some spurious sameness. An Irish anecdote illustrates the offensiveness of this, stating ‘just because we speak English doesn’t mean we are the same’. Racial and immigration issues became inextricably linked and highly politicised and the prominence of Enoch Powell lead to the rise and normalisation of far right groups such as the National Front and the BNP, still active today and recently on trial for race crimes. Nowadays the debate centres around asylum seekers and illegal immigrants, who, in the style of Powell’s immigrants, threaten, despite the facts, to ‘swamp’ Britain, and even in the run-up to the current election the Conservative leader Michael Howard is making immigration a central election issue. Was the approach a success? In terms of keeping non-white colonial and New Commonwealth citizens out of Britain, no. In terms of linking and politicising immigration and racism and normalising prejudice in British society, yes. Bibliography Brown, R. 1995. ‘Racism and immigration in Britain’, International Socialism Journal 68. Davies, N. 1999. The Isles. London: Macmillan. Foot, P. 1965. Immigration and Race in British Politics. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Hiro, D. 1991. Black British White British. London: Grafton. Homes, C. 1988. John Bull’s Island: Immigration and British Society, 1871-1971. London: Macmillan. Layton-Henry, Z. 1992. The Politics of Immigration. Oxford: Blackwell. Office of National Statistics. 2004. Populations Trends 116 (Summer 2004). Solomos, J. 1993. Race and Racism in Britain. (2nd edition) London: Macmillan